Can I trust the Bible? Is the Bible reliable?

Can I trust the Bible? Is the Bible reliable? 

            Some people ask, if they can trust the Bible and if it is reliable. These are two valid questions, and the short answer to both is yes. On this note, there are many false perceptions, common misperceptions and outright falsehoods that some people claim about the Bible (aka. Scripture). Nevertheless, while these perceptions exist, unfortunately, many people do not bother to examine the Bible to see, if what they hear or think is actually true. It is one thing to make an allegation, it is another to personally examine and verify the truth about a claim that is made.

            The following is a short overview (1) addressing several common issues people need to consider, if they are serious about exploring the accuracy of Scripture. Among these issues are, if the Bible is reliable, which Bible interpretation is correct, how we know it is the same today as when it was composed, how the canon of the biblical books was established, responding to apparent contradictions and errors, answering claims of incompatibility from critics about ethics and science, challenges and misconceptions about the gospels.

            Considering the central challenge, namely the reliability of the Bible, the following is segmented into six parts. These parts address the reliability of biblical texts, the uniqueness of the Bible, the canon of the Bible, apparent errors, ethical and scientific challenges and lastly the absolute truth found in the gospel. The purpose of this line of evidence is to show, not only the accuracy and reliability of the Bible, but also providing and invitation to trust the text. That way, to move beyond skepticism and begin a personal journey with God’s Word, learning more about Jesus Christ, Who is “God’s Word.”

            To start off, we are considering the reliability of the biblical texts, that is the documents comprising the body of the Bible. Here there are three elements of evidence to consider: First, to look at the validity of the biblical manuscripts. Second, to carefully evaluate the claims of the biblical authors. Third, to look at external confirmation of the biblical material. 

To validate the first element, we have to look at the biblical records. That way, we must consider the amount, quality and time frame of the manuscripts in their transmission of the Old Testament (OT) and New Testament (NT) texts, taken together as a combined line of evidence.

While the amount of old Hebrew manuscripts is comparatively small, the OT is enriched by the Septuagint, the Samaritan Pentateuch, the Targums, the Talmud, as well as the Dead Sea Scrolls (DSS) (2). As for NT manuscripts, the total amount is unmatched in the literature of ancient texts. To put it into perspective, the standard number of copies about authors such as Aristotle, Plato, or Julius Caesar is somewhere on the scale from one to twenty. The NT manuscripts exceed 5,000 Greek, 8,000 Latin and 10,000+ NT passages, which amounts to a unique and astonishing quantity.

Next, the quality of the OT and NT manuscripts, while different in scope, is just as unsurpassed as the aforementioned amount of evidence. The Jewish scribes who made new copies took meticulous care in their work, given their godly reverence, which resulted in a high quality of the Hebrew Bible, unmatched in ancient history. Thereby, the first Masoretic OT texts, were confirmed and validated by the DSS, despite small variations in style and expression. The quality of the NT manuscripts is even better, due to the sheer amount available. While there are variant readings – predominantly caused by scribal errors, these are fractional, discernable and have no impact on NT theological doctrine, making the NT close to one hundred percent pure. The uncertain faction can and has been detected using textual criticism.

In addition to amount and quality, the developmental time frame of OT and NT manuscripts provides another strong link in the line of evidence, attesting to the reliability of the Bible. As for the former, the DSS discovery significantly reduced the commonly held time frame of the OT books to the earliest copies available. Moreover, the time frame for the NT manuscripts is unprecedented in that the earliest papyrus can be dated to the early second century AD, less than a decade or two after the Gospel of John was written. The time frame for the majority of NT texts does not exceed two hundred years, whereas the period between authorship and copies of other ancient authors exceeds one thousand years. Therefore, amount, quality and time frame of the OT and NT substantiates and confirms reliability of the Bible. See comparison chart between NT and other ancient writings. (3)

AUTHOR	DATE	EARLIEST	TIME SPAN	NUMBER	ACCURACY
Homer	ca. 850 B.C.	?	?	643	95%
Herodotus	ca. 450 B.C.	ca. A.D. 900	About 1,350	8	not enough copies
Euripedes	ca. 440 B.C.	ca. A.D. 1100	About 1,500	9	not enough copies
Thucydides	ca. 420 B.C.	ca. A.D. 900	About 1,300 years	8	not enough copies
Plato	ca. 380 B.C.	ca. A.D. 900	About 1,300 years	7	reconstruct
Aristotle	ca. 350 B.C.	ca. A.D. 1100	About 1,400 years	5	reconstruct
Caesar	ca. 60 B.C.	ca. A.D. 900	About 950 years	10	reconstruct
Catullus	ca. 50 B.C.	ca. A.D. 1500	About 1,600 years	3	?
the Livy	ca. 10 B.C.	?	?	20	original
Tacitus	ca. A.D. 100	ca. A.D. 1100	About 1,000 years	20	original
New Testament	ca. A.D. 60	ca. A.D. 130	About 100 years	14,000	99.5%

Evaluating the claims of the biblical authors is equally important to determine the reliability of the biblical text. Since various authors state they are first-hand eyewitnesses to the events in the NT, their truth claims must be examined. This is especially important, since some people say that these accounts are mere fabrications. Along this line, so-called ‘scholars’ of higher criticism and form criticism allege that the life of Jesus Christ and his teachings were distorted by the early church. Two of the eyewitness writers, John and Peter, were thoroughly familiar with the life, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. This is revealed in their writings showing a high level of authenticity and firm commitment to the truth. As such, John writes in his Gospel, “And he who has seen has testified, and his testimony is true; and he knows that he is telling the truth, so that you may believe” (John 19:35; see 21:24). In his first letter (epistle), John wrote, “That which was from the beginning, which we have heard, which we have seen with our eyes, which we have looked upon, and our hands have handled, concerning the Word of life . . . that which we have seen and heard we declare to you” (1 John 1:1,3). Peter unequivocally underscores this: “For we did not follow cunningly devised fables when we made known to you the power and coming of our Lord Jesus Christ, but were eyewitnesses of His majesty” (2 Pet. 1:16; also see Acts 2:22; 1 Pet. 5:1).

Since most of the NT was completed before AD 70, and fully complete before the second century, this short time span does not allow for falsification or myths about Christ, given also the large number of eyewitnesses alive, when the circulation of the NT texts started. On top of this, notably, a non-eyewitness to Christ, Luke, wrote a two-part account (Gospel of Luke and the Book of Acts), which not only emphasizes historical accuracy and a high level of detail, but does not contradict any of the first-hand eyewitness accounts in any way. Rather, his rendition supports them, adding unique details furthering the authenticity of the other NT writings.

External confirmation of the biblical material bolsters the case for reliability, simply because Scripture directly mentions and relates to historical events and people. This fact cannot and must not be overlooked or casually dismissed. Josephus, a Jewish historian makes precise reference to Jesus Christ, John the Baptist and James in The Antiquities of the Jews, along with distinct details of the religious rulers at the time. Additional writers such as Tacitus, Pliny the Younger and Lucian refer to Christ in their works, independent of one another. The OT and NT reference a vast number of events, people and places over a large time span, and archeology confirms hundreds of accounts found in the Bible.

In short, taking together the validity of the biblical manuscripts, the claims of the biblical authors combined with the external evidence, provides for a good case that can be made for the reliability of the biblical records. As seen, no other book of ancient times can hold up to the historicity, accuracy and consistency of the Bible. Despite man-made philosophical speculation and unfounded opposition by critics, Scripture is not only historically trustworthy, but also points directly to Jesus Christ. With the evidence supporting the reliability of the gospel testimonies about Jesus, a further sound case can be made for His resurrection. Accordingly, the resurrection verifies Christ’s claims about Himself as divine – Jesus is God. Hence, His declaration about Scripture is not only true, but also provides full authority of the Word of God. Hereby, the NT affirms Christ’s resurrection and His divine authority.

Having explored the Bible’s reliability, this second part investigates what makes the Bible unique. We are considering its exceptional creation, continuation over time and its pronouncements. 

The Bible stands out, given how it came into being. Over forty different authors, encompassing a time span of roundabout 1,500 to 1,800 years, wrote in a diversity of literary forms (prophecies, narrative history, poetry, biography and more), many of them found only in Scripture. As such, the Bible has to be seen as a unique composition, revealing to us one cohesive, self-consistent and ongoing message of redemption, with Jesus Christ, His person, identity and work, as its main themes.

Likewise, the Bible’s continuation over time attests to its reliability. It has been preserved over time – facing criticism and persecution – an yet, it has been copied and distributed like no other book in human history. Its consistent prominence over time has led to being translated into thousands of languages, and remains available today, despite many systematic attempts to eradicate it.

            Lastly, the Bible stands out in what it pronounces. Its contents, coherence and accurate detail are unsurpassed in its prophetic nature. It reveals God’s divine plan for all mankind, and encompasses both the earthly and spiritual realm in a way that sets it apart from writings of other man-made belief systems and religions. Over 300 Messianic prophecies have been actualized in the person and life of Christ. Also, general (non-messianic) prophecy has been fulfilled, with some (such as the Second Coming) still to take place. All of this reinforces the supernatural source of the Bible. Consider this list of OT predictions and NT fulfillments about Christ’s life, revealing how meticulously His incarnation was prophesied. (4)

1.         He was born of a woman (Gen. 3:15; Gal. 4:4). 

2.         Born of a virgin (Isa. 7:14; Matt. 1:18-25). 

3.         A descendant of Abraham (Gen. 12:1-3; 22:18; Matt. 1:1; Gal. 3:16).

4.         From the tribe of Judah (Gen. 49:10; Luke 3:23,33).

5.         Of the house of David (2 Sam. 7:12; Jer. 23:5; Matt. 1:1; Luke 1:32). 

6.         Born in Bethlehem (Micah 5:2; Matt. 2:1; Luke 2:4-7). 

7.         His way prepared by a forerunner (Isa. 40:3-5; Mal. 3:1; Matt. 3:1-3; Luke 3:3-6). 

8.         Anointed by the Holy Spirit (Isa. 11:2; Matt. 3:16-17). 

9.         His preaching ministry (Isa. 61:1-3; Luke 4:17-21). 

10.      Speaking in parables (Ps. 78:2-4; Matt. 13:34-35). 

11.       Healing ministry (Isa. 35:5-6; Matt. 9:35). 

12.      A prophet (Deut. 18:18; John 6:14; Acts 3:20-22). 

13.      A priest (Ps. 110:4; Heb. 5:5-6). 

14.      Time of His appearance and death (Dan. 9:24-27: Luke 19:44). 

15.      Triumphal entry (Zech. 9:9; John 12:12-16). 

16.      Betrayal price (Zech. 11:12-13; Matt. 26:15; 27:7-10). 

17.      Abandoned by His disciples (Zech. 13:6-7; Matt. 26:31; Mark 14:50). 

18.      Silent before His accusers (Isa. 53:7; Matt. 27:12-14). 

19.      Beaten and spat upon (Isa. 50:6; Matt. 26:67). 

20.      Mocked (Ps. 22:7-8; Luke 23:35). 

21.      Hands and feet pierced (Ps. 22:16; John 19:16-18). 

22.      Crucified with transgressors (Isa. 53:12; Mark 15:27-28). 

23.      Lots cast for His garments (Ps. 22:18; John 19:23-24).

24.      Cry from the cross (Ps 22:1; Matt. 27:46).

25.      No bones broken (Ps. 24:20; John 19:31-36). 

26.      Pierced in His side (Zech. 12:10; John 19:34,37). 

27.      Buried with the rich (Isa. 53:9; Matt. 27:57-60). 

28.      Resurrection and exaltation (Ps. 16:10; Isa. 52:13; 53:10-12; Acts 2:25-32). 

29.      Ascension into heaven (Ps. 68:18; Acts 1:9; Eph. 4:8). 

30.      Seated at the right hand of God (Ps. 110:1; Heb. 1:3). 

            In short, taken together, the distinctive attributes, establish a solid case for the divine inspiration of Scripture, especially in light of aforementioned reliability of the biblical text. The message of redemption gives people encouragement, purpose and hope, to everyone who welcomes Jesus Christ into their hearts. This is an absolutely unique personal relationship with the One and Only living God, nobody should miss.

            But how do we have assurance that the people who decided what to include in the Bible were correct and made the right choices? This third part, briefly explores and addresses the issue surrounding the biblical canon. Many who raise objections on this basis may have a wrong idea about the essence of canonicity. The meaning of the word ‘canon’ is simply – having a rule or guideline. These rules and guidelines acknowledge the standards of divine inspiration. By means of these standards – with canonicity determined by inspiration – the early church rejected texts that were not inspired, but included those which were. In that way, the church identified the books of the Bible comprising the canon, but did not exert influence on this selection. The so-called Apocryphal books were not viewed as canonical by the early Christian church or by the Jews. Among the latter, neither Josephus nor Philo quoted from them, just as Jesus or any other NT author never quoted from them. Hence, the thirty-nine OT and twenty-seven NT books passed verification of apostolic origin, doctrine and first century date.

            At other times, some people may claim that the Bible is full of errors and contradictions. In this fourth part, we are looking at apparent claims made about the Bible in this way. So-called ‘contradictions’ are often claimed to exist when more than one biblical author writes about one and the same event. However, a closer look shows us, that alleged discrepancies, are nothing more than that, since the narrated accounts can be consistently harmonized.

            As for alleged errors in the Bible, these can be grouped into three categories – biblical sources, biblical text and biblical interpretation. The first category relates to incomplete biblical and non-biblical sources, which may appear to be in error. Discoveries in archeology however, have validated biblical statements and revealed biblical sufficiency. 

            Some errors, have entered the biblical text over time, through scribal transmission. Yet, these have been identified as such, and offset in our Bible today, pointing to our earliest manuscripts as reliable evidence. The case for most of these scribal errors is because of similar numerical notations, given the fact that both Greek and Hebrew letters also have a numerical value. Here, the more concerning issue is that some people try to read meaning into the numbers and falsely attribute some mystical significance. This is not only wrong, fruitless and pointless, but actually prohibited (Deuteronomy 18:9-14). The Bible is not about numbers, it is about Jesus Christ.

            Finally, the last category, biblical interpretation can lead to the appearance of error. This is often caused by different translations of the Bible. Considering extra biblical data alongside false biblical interpretation often aggravates this apparent error. However, the best remedy here is to understand that the original languages of the Bible (Hebrew, Greek and Aramaic) have been directly translated into English. Comparing multiple translations usually helps in getting a hold on this and gaining a better grasp on what a text means.

            In short, most apparent errors and contradictions, as manifested in these three categories, are nothing more than an appearance. Most can be and have been resolved. With a small amount of challenges surrounding biblical discrepancies remaining, these have been offset by consistent historical and archeological evidence. There are unanswered difficulties the Bible contains, yet, this does not impact the testimony of Jesus, God the Son, who confirms all of Scripture as God’s inerrant Word, along with His own identity prior and after His resurrection. Examples can be found in His seven “I Am” statements in the Gospel of John and the road to Emmaus in Luke 24:25-27.

In this fifth segment, we are looking at ethical and scientific challenges by which some people attempt to undermine the Bible. The former mostly includes issues of slavery and genocide. The issue of genocide is challenging, as seen in the destruction of Canaan. However, while the conquest is unique in the Bible, God did have a divine plan and purpose here. The Canaanites were fully aware of the true and living God, yet (with the exception of Rahab, a Canaanite woman in Jericho, recorded in Joshua 2:1-24; Joshua 6:17, 22-23) saw the other Canaanites unrepentant and unregenerate hearts along with their rejection of Him. In that way, the Canaanites rebelled against and rejected God’s forgiveness, leading to divine judgement.

The issue of slavery as we understand it today is very different from the form of slavery permitted in Scripture. At the time, slaves were supposed to be treated with respect, human dignity and had access to join Israelite worship. The slave system then was culturally specific and the social values were different from today. It should be mentioned that present-day society has diluted as well as misrepresented the holiness of God, and, sin itself is no longer seen as such by many.

Misrepresenting the issues of ‘genocide’ and slavery, taking them out of context and misappropriating these biblical events, is often done to justify and continue living in sin along with even denying the existence of God. Jesus Christ came to mend and transform every single human relationship along with establishing Christian values as a basis for a personal relationship with Himself.

Closely linked to the denial of God and shift to living in unrepentant sin, is the issue of so-called ‘unscientific’ aspects of the Bible. Here the most common issue raised is that of evolution. Critics allege the Bible is wrong in its record of the creation account. Thereby, foremost non-theistic evolution theory is mentioned. However, this model has its own scientific problems, logical deficiencies and can be dismissed as mere speculation, since it provides no coherent functional mechanism that explains (let alone provides any evidence) for the coming into being of the first living cell – that is the beginning of life – the complexity of the human brain along with the relationship between mankind and the cosmos. The burden of proof rests solely on the adherents of non-theistic evolution, and while many of its claims have already been refuted by science itself, new scientific discoveries may bring this man-made theory and linked philosophy to its end.

In brief, while the ethical challenges should not be simply dismissed, the Bible clearly reveals a divine plan, purpose and timing for God’s revelation of Himself in and through these events. Critics who want to dismiss the Bible, based on ethics, often overlook that by doing so, they have to resort to some other reference point – such as random chance, or something else. Unfortunately, ethically speaking, the absence of a Biblical reference point never works out, since no moral or ethical standards can be established.

Similarly, people who use evolution as an approach to attack or undermine Scripture, often disregard the fact that they are not dealing with a scientific textbook. While there are misunderstandings about how the Bible can be scientifically valid (not even to mention its record of miracles), when it deals with questions of science the Bible has proven itself trustworthy. The Bible often describes aspects of nature by means of how things appear to the eye. Considering the cohesiveness and precision established in the biblical worldview, along with Jesus Christ, this provides a better, if not most plausible explanation for the beginning of the universe, life and mankind.

The previous fivefold considerations, lead us to the last part, namely the absolute truth we find in the gospel(s). While the records of miracles in both OT and NT are astonishing, nothing compares to the identity and mission of Jesus Christ. While some people, for whatever reason, may simply ignore or dismiss the Bible altogether, there is no good reason to do so. Why? This is because of the ‘good news,’ found here, only here and nowhere else. The word gospel comes from the English rendering of Latin (Evangelium) and Greek (Evangelion), which means “good news.”

The gospel accounts (Matthew, Mark, Luke and John) two of them eyewitnesses – are all biographical, but more importantly, four unique perspectives portraying the life and work of the God-man, Jesus Christ. Faith in and allegiance to Him are the way to eternal life, since salvation is found in Christ alone. The gospel accounts complement each other in that each contains similar, as well as unique details of the Messiah, that provide a composite picture, engaging any serious reader with the distinctive claims, attributes and credentials of Jesus. Among the major themes is the contrast between belief and unbelief, culminating in the crucifixion and resurrection. Decisively, the gospel accounts reveal that as he rose and ascended, Jesus inaugurated God’s rule in this time – to be fully consummated at His Second Coming.

In sum, considering all six aspects, returning back in answering the two questions, if the Bible is reliable and if it can be trusted – as these considerations interlock and reveal – the answer to both is yes and yes. The complimentary chain of reliability, uniqueness, canon, apparent errors, ethical and scientific challenges and the gospel, point directly to Jesus Christ. No one else fits in here, and it is one thing to dismiss the Bible without having explored aforementioned aspects, and quite another to actually examine the Bible personally. This is an invitation to open, read and explore Scripture to learn about ‘God in the flesh,’ Jesus Christ, to whom all of the Biblical texts point. The Bible, therefore manifests the heart and mind of God along with His love for mankind, revealed in divine complexity – yet simple enough – for anyone to grasp. Only in the Bible is absolute truth revealed (John 14:6; 15:5) – Jesus Christ is LORD.

Notes

(1) Adapted from Kenneth Boa, “Bible Companion Handbook,” accessed March 7, 2023, https://bible.org/series/bible-companion-handbook

(2) See glossary for a definition of all terms.

(3) Comparison between NT and other ancient writings, adapted from (1).

(4) List of OT predictions and NT fulfillments about Christ’s life, revealing how meticulously His incarnation was prophesied, adapted from (1).

Always remember, the best Bible, is an open Bible!

Amen.

Where to go from here?

Glossary

Apocryphal Books

A collection of books included in the Old Testament of ancient Christian Bibles in Greek or Latin but not included in the Masoretic Text of the Hebrew Bible. At some point, confusion was caused when the Apocryphal books were added to the Septuagint, despite not being identified as canonical by the Jews or the early Christian church. During the Counter-Reformation, at the Council of Trent in 1546, the Roman Catholic Church assigned the Apocrypha full canonical status. These books were written more than 200 years after the time of the last OT prophet, Malachi. Unlike the books of the OT, they do not claim to have the prophetic hallmark, and do not reveal the authority and power of God. They contain doctrinal errors, unbiblical morality, historical inaccuracy, and were not originally received by the people of God.

Aramaic Language

Likely the spoken language of Jesus and his disciples. Aramaic was the common language of much of the ancient Near East.

Bible (aka. Scripture)

Neither Jews nor Christians originally called their Scriptures “the Bible” (lit., “the Book”). Jews often used words signifying “the Scrolls,” and Christians did call their Scriptures “the Books” (lit., “the codices”). In the early centuries, the Christian Bible appeared almost exclusively in the form of codex fascicles, each containing either one of the larger books (e.g., Isaiah) or a collection of smaller books (Paul’s Letters), so the Scriptures physically corresponded to Lat. bibli., “the books” (cf. Jerome: bibliotheca, lit., “the library”). The term derives from bublos or bublion, loanwords from Egyptian, denoting originally the stalk and, then, the inner pitch of the papyrus plant from which scrolls were commonly made.

Old Testament Books (39 total)

Genesis

Exodus

Leviticus

Numbers

Deuteronomy

Joshua

Judges

Ruth

1 Samuel

2 Samuel

1 Kings

2 Kings

1 Chronicles

2 Chronicles

Ezra

Nehemiah

Esther

Job

Psalms

Proverbs

Ecclesiastes

Song of Solomon

Isaiah

Jeremiah

Lamentations

Ezekiel

Daniel

Hosea

Joel

Amos

Obadiah

Jonah

Micah

Nahum

Habakkuk

Zephaniah

Haggai

Zechariah

Malachi

New Testament Books (27 total)

Matthew

Mark

Luke

John

Acts

Romans

1 Corinthians

2 Corinthians

Galatians

Ephesians

Philippians

Colossians

1 Thessalonians

2 Thessalonians

1 Timothy

2 Timothy

Titus

Philemon

Hebrews

James

1 Peter

2 Peter

1 John

2 John

3 John

Jude

Revelation

Canon

A collection of religious writings considered authoritative.

Canonization

The historical, theological, liturgical, and textual dimensions of the process of canonization are studied only in retrospect. A central question about canonicity is whether a canon or the notion of canonicity comes first; scholars often focus on this question when exploring the relationship of theology and hermeneutics to the formation of a collection of sacred texts. Canonicity is firmly rooted in the recognition of the usage and authority of the texts.

Crucifixion

The practice of executing certain criminals by staking their hands and feet to a cross as punishment for their crimes, used in the execution of Jesus Christ.

Dead Sea Scrolls (DSS)

Scrolls found among the 11 caves of Qumran by the Dead Sea that are not copies of biblical books. These scrolls date approximately to 250 BCE–CE 50.

Early Church Fathers

Ancient and influential Christian writers who lived during the centuries following the apostles, and whose writings are regarded as formative for the doctrine of the Church.

Epistle (Letter)

Written communication or a letter. Any of the letters to the early Christians that are part of the New Testament.

Evolution (Theory)

Evolution in its contemporary meaning in biology typically refers to the changes in the proportions of biological types in a population over time. The theory of evolution is a shortened form of the term “theory of evolution by natural selection,” which was proposed by Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace in the nineteenth century. This theory is incompatible with the Bible and with the beliefs of a Christian that are based on the Bible.

Form Criticism

A method of biblical criticism that seeks to classify units of biblical text according to genre and analyze the pre-literary stages of the text.

Gospel(s)

The message of Christ, the kingdom of God and salvation. A gospel is an announcement of good news. In particular, the gospel is the announcement that Jesus’ life, death, and resurrection have brought about salvation for Israel and the world. When the word Gospel is capitalized, it may refer to one of the four NT narrative accounts of Jesus’ life, death, and resurrection – these are Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. All others are false. There are false gospels today, just as there were false gospels in NT times.

Greek Language

Examines the origins of Greek and its usage in the ancient world, with particular attention to implications for the New Testament, composed in the first century AD, and the Septuagint (LXX), the Greek translation of the Old Testament, which dates from the first quarter of the third century BC.

Hebrew Language

A Semitic language spoken by the Hebrew people from the late second millennium BC until the second century AD. The written language of the standard edition of the Old Testament, which was preserved by the Masoretes.

Hebrew Bible (aka. Tanakh)

The Hebrew name for the Hebrew Bible. The term is an acronym for the three major divisions of the Hebrew Bible: the Torah, the Nebiim, and the Kethuvim.

Higher Criticism

A term applied to a type of biblical studies that emerged in mostly German academic circles in the late eighteenth century, blossomed in English-speaking academies during the nineteenth, and faded out in the early twentieth.

Holy Spirit

Holy Spirit, also called Paraclete or Holy Ghost, in Christian belief, the third person of the Trinity. As Trinity, in Christian doctrine, the unity of Father, Son, and Holy Spirit as three persons in one Godhead. The doctrine of the Trinity is considered to be one of the central Christian affirmations about God. An essential summary ought to include at least that the Spirit is the transcendent, omnipresent spiritual and localizable presence of God’s personality and power, living in and divinely empowering all of God’s true people in diverse and incomplete ways that foreshadow their complete, future renewal at the end of the age.

Incarnation

The doctrine expressed in the Nicene Creed and the Definition of Chalcedon: that Jesus Christ, the only begotten Son of God, begotten before all the ages and of one substance with the Father, was made flesh through the Holy Spirit and the virgin Mary, making Him truly God and truly human, possessing two natures, which are not confused, changed, divided, or separated.  Although the term “incarnation” does not appear in the Bible, Christian tradition has long held that Jesus is God incarnate.

Inerrancy

Meaning “without error.” Typically used to describe Scripture as without error. The Bible is inspired and inerrant. The former term means that God moved through the writers to communicate to us the words which God wanted us to hear. The latter means that all that is written in the inspired documents is without error. Inspiration and inerrancy apply to the original writings, not to the copies. Thus, it is the original writings that are without error. Inspiration comes from God and when He inspired the Bible, it was perfect. Our copies of the original documents are not perfect, due to identifiable scribal error, but they are very close to being so.

Jesus Christ

Jesus Christ (ca. 5/4 BC – AD 30/33). According to the New Testament, Jesus Christ is the incarnate Word of God, the Creator and Savior of the world, the founder of Christianity, and the sinless exemplar of its principles and practices. In Matthew 1:21 the name was divinely appointed, “for He will save His people from their sins.” Since the name was common in His lifetime, He was usually referred to in a more specific way, such as “Jesus of Nazareth” (John 1:26; Schaeder, “Nazarēnos, Nazōraios,” 874–79). “Christ,” the anointed one, is a title that acknowledged that He was the expected Messiah of Israel. In the Gospels, Jesus is usually identified as “the Christ.” After Peter’s sermon at Pentecost in Acts 2:38, He was usually referred to as “Jesus Christ.” This composite name joins the historic figure with the messianic role that prophetic expectation and early Christianity knew that He possessed.

John the Baptist

Son of Zechariah and Elizabeth. Relative of Jesus Christ. Baptized people for repentance of their sins. Beheaded by Herod Antipas at the request of his stepdaughter/niece.

Josephus

Josephus was a military officer and historian in Israel, fighting against the Romans. During a battle he was captured, and eventually made a Roman citizen after his Roman captors took a liking to him. In Rome, Josephus wrote books and volumes, many of which were on Jewish history.

King James Bible (aka. Authorized Version)

An English translation of the Bible sponsored by James I of England. Published in two separate editions in 1611.

Koine Greek

The “common” Greek language that developed and flourished between 300 B.C.E. and 300 C.E. (the time of the Roman Empire), and from which Modern Greek descended.

Lucian

Lucian of Antioch was a Christian presbyter, theologian, and martyr. He was noted for both his scholarship and ascetic piety.

Masoretic Texts

The traditional Hebrew text behind most modern translations of the Old Testament.

Miracle

An event that defies common expectations of behavior and subsequently is attributed to a superhuman agent; an occurrence that demonstrates God’s involvement in the course of human affairs.

New Testament

A canon of distinctly Christian Scripture, recognized as authoritative. (Also see ‘Bible’)

Old Testament

A canon of Scriptures, recognized as authoritative, that comprises the first part of the Christian Bible and that includes the Hebrew Bible. (Also see ‘Bible’)

Origen

Origen was a scholar and early Christian theologian. He did not stick to one area of theology, but rather branched out, writing things that later became controversial among Christian theologians.

Papyrus

A plant used for the production of papyri, an ancient writing material.

Philo

Born in Alexandria around 20 BCE and lived until CE 50. Author and philosopher. Known for his allegorical hermeneutic. Contemporary of Jesus and Josephus.

Pliny the Younger

Roman governor in the province of Bithynia-Pontus during the reign of Trajan. He shared his name with his uncle, Pliny the Elder.

Prophecies (General & Messianic)

A prophecy is an oral, divine message mediated through an individual that is directed at a person or people group and intended to elicit a specific response. General prophecy is often an eschatological prophecy, meaning prophecies about end-time events, that have not yet occurred. Messianic Prophecy may be defined to be all prophecy that refers, whether more or less distinctly, to the coming of Christ, to his work of salvation, or to the growth and consummation of his kingdom.

Pseudepigrapha

In biblical literature, a work affecting biblical style and usually spuriously attributing authorship to some biblical character. Pseudepigrapha are not included in any canon.

Qumran

A site with ruins located near the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea, nearest the caves that yielded the Dead Sea Scrolls.

Repentance

The practice of asking another for forgiveness and ceasing some sinful behavior.

Resurrection

From the Latin resurrectio, meaning “rising again.” A return to life after having died. Mainly refers to the resurrection of Christ—the central event of the Christian faith. Also refers to the Christian doctrine of corporate resurrection, which is connected to the judgment of both the living and the dead. The resurrection of Jesus was the most important event in Christian culture and theology. It provided the grounds for their faith and belief.

Rufinus

Rufinus, (born c. 345, Concordia, near Aquileia, Italy—died 410/411, Sicily, possibly at Messina), Roman priest, writer, theologian, and translator of Greek theological works into Latin at a time when knowledge of Greek was declining in the West.

Samaritan Pentateuch

A version of the Pentateuch preserved by the Samaritan community primarily in the Paleo-Hebrew script. The text contains a number of textual variants, some reflecting incidental and ideological alterations, and others a possible original text.

Second Coming

Second Coming, also called Second Advent or Parousia, in Christianity, the future return of Christ in glory, when it is understood that he will set up his kingdom, judge his enemies, and reward the faithful, living and dead.

Septuagint (LXX)

The translation of the Old Testament into Greek; read in the early church and often quoted by the New Testament writers. The Septuagint often is represented as Roman numerals: “LXX” equivalent of the number 70.

Sin

Actions that violate the law or moral standard of God.

Tacitus

A Roman historian and rhetorician (ca. 56–118 AD) who wrote several important works related to the history of the Roman Empire.

Talmud

A collection of rabbinic Jewish texts that record the oral tradition of the early rabbis. The Talmud is primary source for the study of Judaism from the first century ad up to the date of its final redaction, as late as the seventh century. The Talmud is likewise relevant to the study of Judaism in Jesus’ and the apostles’ lifetimes.

Tanakh

The Hebrew name for the Hebrew Bible. The term is an acronym for the three major divisions of the Hebrew Bible: the Torah, the Nebiim, and the Kethubim.

Targum

Aramaic word meaning “translation.” Technically, this designation can refer to translation into any language. However, in rabbinic literature, the word is used to speak of the practice of translating the biblical Hebrew text into the vernacular Aramaic within Jewish synagogues.

Textual Criticism

Textual Criticism of the Hebrew Bible, History of Text. A historical study of the development of the Hebrew Bible.

Torah

The first of three divisions of the Hebrew Scriptures comprising the first five books considered as a unit; often includes the content of the books as well.

Unicals

A handwriting used especially in Greek and Latin manuscripts of the fourth to the eighth centuries A.D. and made with somewhat rounded separated majuscules but having cursive forms for some letters.

Unregenerate

An unregenerate person is not renewed in heart and mind or reborn in spirit, unrepentant and an unregenerate sinner – also refusing to believe in the existence of God. Regeneration by contrast, is the act of God, whereby He renews the spiritual condition of a sinner. It is a spiritual change brought about by the work of the Holy Spirit, so that the person then possesses new life, namely eternal life. Regeneration is a change in our moral and spiritual nature where justification is a change in our relationship with God.

Unrepentance

An unrepentant person shows no regret for one’s wrongdoings.

Vulgate

The Latin translation of the Bible that Jerome produced in CE 383–405 or that was at least initiated by him, with the Old Testament and Gospels certainly being translated by him.

For further reading and study

Wegner, Paul D. The Journey from Texts to Translations: The Origin and Development 

of the Bible. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 1999.

Fee, Gordon D. and Mark L Strauss. How to Choose a Translation for All Its Worth: A 

Guide to Understanding and Using Bible Versions. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2007.

Norton, David. The King James Bible: A Short History from Tyndale to Today. 

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011. 

Klein, William W. Craig L. Blomberg and Robert L Hubbard. Introduction to Biblical 

Interpretation. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2017.

Boa, Kenneth. “Bible Companion Handbook.” Accessed March 7, 2023. 

https://bible.org/series/bible-companion-handbook

Amen.